The Madara Rider sits 246 feet above ground, on a cliff face in the Madara Plateau of northeastern Bulgaria. The relief is inaccessible, adding to its mystery. How were they able to create it? Either way, the relief is extraordinary.
Including the inscription in Medieval Greek, the rider covers close to 1400 square feet on a vertical 328 foot cliff face. The horseman is depicted in a hunting scene, spearing a lion. The lion is being trampled by the horse and a dog is trailing behind the rider.
Nothing amazes me more than a temple or building constructed entirely out of stone. Carved into the mountains like Al Khazneh. The Lycian Tombs numbering close to 1100. The Longmen Grottoes in China. They’re a magnificent feat of engineering, representing the pinnacle of stone masonry. I always wondered why they were built into the sides of mountains and why the stones quarried are so massive in size. Don’t you wonder this as well? How did they do it exactly?
When did rock architecture start appearing in history?
The ritual of Rock architecture occupies a predominantly significant place in the history of Architecture. Several individuals date the first appearance of these structures to 1280 BCE, in the form of The Temple of Ramses, known as Abu Simbel, located along the Nile in Nubia. The temple is comprised of a mammoth scaled portico carved out of the cliff with interior chambers forming its asylum. It’s an incredible feat of engineering, but it’s certainly not the first.
Several prehistoric temples have been found in Malta and Sardinia, many in fact, predating Stonehenge and the Pyramids of Giza. Around the 4th millennium BC, a megalithic temple complex found on the southern coast of the Mediterranean island of Malta appeared. Mnajdra is approximately 500 metres from the Ħaġar Qim megalithic complex.
Dating between 3600 and 2500 BCE, we see the Ggantija Temple appear in Malta, the Hypogeum (the only prehistoric underground temple in the world), and Xagħra Stone Circle in Malta.
Historical Outline of Rock Cut Architecture
3600-2500 BC-Ggantija Temple appears in Malta.
4th century millennium BC -Mnajdra in Malta appeared.
3600–3000 BC—Construction of the Ta' Ħaġrat and Kordin III temples in Malta.
3300–2900 BC—Construction of the Newgrange solar observatory/passage tomb in Ireland.
3250–3000 BC—Construction of three megalithic temples at Tarxien, Malta.
3200–2500 BC—Construction of the Ħaġar Qim megalithic temple complex on Malta, featuring both solar and lunar alignments.
3000-2500 BC-Hypogeum appears in Malta.
3000-2400 BC- Xagħra Stone Circle in Malta
100BC-200AD- Al Khazneh was originally built. The Treasury in Jordan.
3rd and 2nd Century -Rock cut architecture, the Barabar Caves, appeared in India between the 3rd and 2nd century and were the earliest instances of Indian rock-cut architecture.
1st-5th century- Emergence of extensive rock-cut buildings, including houses and churches in Cappadocia, Turkey.
5th-6th century-Lycian Tombs in Anatolia (now Turkey). The Longmen Grottoes, the Mogao Caves and the Yungang Grottoes appear in China.
8th century-First rock cut architecture appears in Israel.
12th-13th century- Rock-cut architecture in Lalibela, Ethiopia including 13 churches. These structures represent the last of the rock cut architectural form.
Why were the temples or tombs built in the sides of mountains?
I asked the same question, but here’s what I believe. Depending upon the geographical location, the materials used to construct the rock architecture is what builders had available. There weren’t metal works or bricks being made in some areas. Mountains were simply an easy palate in which to build upon, or through.
Mountainside carved temples were also safe houses, allowing socially advanced, yet segregated tribal units, to protect themselves from other neighboring peoples. Why do you think these structures were carved into the mountains?
How were these rock cut structures built?
The initial structures were typically carved out by starting at the top to construct a crown and then working downward, for the apparent reason stones would not be falling on one's head. Stones would slowly be moved out of the structure, while stone masons chipped away, creating massive archways, altars, columns, and facades.
Ggantijia: One of the Worlds Oldest Free Standing Stone Monuments
The Ggantija Temple in Malta dates to 3600 BC, making it the oldest free standing stone monument in the world.
Ggantija is situated on the island of Gozo, set atop a hill 420 feet above sea level. There are two temples nested within a boundary wall, both similar in design with an entrance passage leading to ovalesque chambers to the left and right, then to three further chambers all connected.
Archaeologists believe the apses, which have evidence of stone corbelling, once held masonry domes for roofing. The southeast temple, which is the best preserved and much older, has an enormous threshold. On top of the threshold sits a basin and libation hole, suggesting purification took place before entrance to the temple.
Bones of animals were found on altars inside Ggantija suggesting animal sacrifice took place. In 1827, two carved heads and a snake relief were found inside as well. The only artifact missing, and this does seem odd, are the female figurines. Malta is famed for its abundance of female sculptures, however no artifacts even came close to resembling them at Ggantija.
Like Stonehenge, Ggantija’s building blocks are highly impressive, weighing in at 50 tons each and 16 feet long. Archaeologists speculated over how the blocks were moved, but when small stone balls were found in great quantity, the mystery was solved. For now.
Although the oldest stone structure in the world, Ggantija is even more mysterious because of its inhabitants. The people of Ggantija were “settled farmers with a sophisticated social structure and highly developed ritualized belief system.” Of course, you can’t forget, the name Ggantija in Maltese means “belonging to giants”. Do you think this was the home of ancient giants?
What is the oldest stone structure built into the side of a mountain? Abu Simbel temples
The Abu Simbel temples were originally built out of the mountainside for Ramses II and his queen Nefertari during the 13th century BC.The Abu Simbel temples were built to commemorate Ramses alleged victory at the Battle of Kadesh, and to intimidate his Nubian neighbors. However, the complex was relocated in its entirety in the 1960s, on an artificial hill made from a domed structure, high above the Aswan High Dam reservoir.
Gobekli Tepe dates to about 11,500 years ago and is the oldest human-made place of worship yet discovered. Located in Urfa, Southern Turkey, and close to the border of Syria, Gobekli Tepe is said to be the brain child by the last hunter gathers prior to the conversion to agriculture.
What’s fascinating about Gobekli Tepe is the structure was deliberately buried in 8000 BC. Why? We’re not sure. What we do know is a complex of this magnitude was never thought possible of a civilization so ancient.
DNA analysis has brought about an interesting hypothesis, possibly linking Gobekli Tepe to the first ever wheat farmers. Modern wheat compared with wild wheat has shown the DNA is closest in structure to wild wheat found in a mountain (Karacadağ) 20 miles away from the site. This leads one to believe Gobekli Tepe was the first site of modern wheat domestication.
“The massive sequence of stratification layers suggests several millennia of activity, perhaps reaching back to the Mesolithic. The oldest occupation layer (stratum III) contains monolithic pillars linked by coarsely built walls to form circular or oval structures. So far, four such buildings, with diameters between 10 and 30m have been uncovered. Geophysical surveys indicate the existence of 16 additional structures.”-Wikipedia
The Treasury at Petra
One of the main reasons I started to become fascinated with rock cut architecture and archaeology was because of Petra. The first time I saw Petra was in the Indian Jones movie.Yes I know. How original! Ever since then, the architecture of stone cut structures have amazed me. The rose colored columns. The intricacies of the carvings.
I think John William Burgon's Poem Petra says it best. He refers to Petra as “the inaccessible city which he had heard described but had never seen.”
The Poem was awarded the Newdigate Prize in 1845:
It seems no work of Man's creative hand,
by labour wrought as wavering fancy planned;
But from the rock as if by magic grown,
eternal, silent, beautiful, alone!
Not virgin-white like that old Doric shrine,
where erst Athena held her rites divine;
Not saintly-grey, like many a minster fane,
that crowns the hill and consecrates the plain;
But rose-red as if the blush of dawn,
that first beheld them were not yet withdrawn;
The hues of youth upon a brow of woe,
which Man deemed old two thousand years ago,
match me such marvel save in Eastern clime,
a rose-red city half as old as time.
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Much of people's observation of these intricately structured monuments is they are highly involved with religious aspects, sculptures depicting the culture of time period, and tombs representing burial rituals. Read this article on Examples of Rock Cut Archaeological Architecture
The Naqsh-e Rostam rock cut tombs and reliefs were named after the Farsi name for medieval tales of the Persian hero Rostam. History tells of Arab armies bringing Islam to Persia during the seventh century. This was around the same time many pagan temples and monuments were being destroyed.Read this article on The Naqsh-e Rostam rock cut tombs
The Persian Empire was tolerant, as well as efficient. They allowed the peoples to practice their own religions, customs, and methods of living life. There were many years of peace during the Persian Empire which facilitated trade and encouraged the well being of its people. Many eastern people owe gratitude for being subjects of the Great Kings of Persia, including Cyrus the Great, Cambyses, and Darius who governed and expanded the empire.Read More about The Great Kings of Persia
The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers was founded in Newcastle in 1866. The renowned engineer Robert Stephenson bequeathed £2000 towards the building of a permanent home for the Institute. A site was purchased in 1867 and building commenced in 1869. Designed by Archibald Matthias Dunn (1832-1917), Neville Hall is an example of High Victorian Gothic architecture. The building presents two faces, each of three main bays, pivoted around a polygonal turret, with a Venetian balcony projecting from the north front and a wide gable thrusting out at the west. The three storeys are treated as separate compositional elements and the attic storey is arrayed with miniature Gothic dormers.
The building of Neville Hall defined Newcastle as the epicentre of the coal trade, the dominant industry of North East England. Inside the building is the Wood Memorial Hall, a library named after the colliery engineer Nicholas Wood (1795-1865). Wood gained experience of mine engineering at Killingworth Colliery under George Stephenson, and assisted Stephenson in the development of his safety lamp and the construction of the Stockton to Darlington railway.
In 1844 Wood became manager of Hetton Colliery in County Durham. Over the next two decades he became the pre-eminent colliery engineer on the northern coalfield and in 1862 he was elected first President of the Institute. Wood was a supporter of education for the working classes and built several schools in mining villages across County Durham. He was among a number of eminent men who encouraged Durham University to establish a College of Science in Newcastle, which eventually became Newcastle University. The Wood Memorial Hall is dominated by a shrine-like monument to Wood, with a pristine statue sculpted by Edward William Wyon (1811-85).
The design of Neville Hall is highly revealing. The choice of architect can largely be explained by nepotism. Dunn’s father, Matthias Dunn (c.1789-1869) was a prominent figure in the history of mining and one of the first government Inspectors of Mines. As a founding member of the Institute he was instrumental in securing the prestigious commission for his son.
The Venetian Gothic style used at Neville Hall had the loquacious support of the famous art critic John Ruskin, to whom the separate compositional layers were evocative of geological strata. Arguably, this made the style symbolically appropriate for a Mining Institute, a body concerned with delving into the earth. Dunn was among the legion of young architects whom Ruskin inspired to tour the continent, and he spent his time sketching examples of French and Italian architecture.
A page from A.M. Dunn’s Notes and Sketches of an Architect, showing his sketch of a church in Bologna dated 26 January 1876.
With its medieval associations, the Gothic style could give individuals or institutions a spurious pedigree by evoking historical lineage. By using this style, the proud, self-made men who dominated the region’s coal trade were deliberately cultivating a group persona as gentlemen and intellectuals. Neville Hall thus promotes an image of historical continuity that was intended to challenge the common perception of the industrial nouveaux riches.
Read More of Michael Johnson's Articles On Architecture
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The defining characteristic of Newcastle architecture is the persistence of the Neo-Classical tradition established by the speculative builder Richard Grainger and his forebears. This encompassed the central core of Newcastle, including key emblems of the town’s identity such as the Central Station (1849-50), Town Hall (1858-63, demolished) and Literary and Philosophical Society (1822-5). Neo-Classicism, the revival of ancient Greek and Roman models, was recognised as a fundamental trait of the city’s identity at both local and national level. In his inaugural address as President ... From: Classical Oasis: The Architecture of Newcastle
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About the Author
Michael Johnson is a lecturer and academic tutor based in the North East of England. He has a PhD in architectural history, and teaches the history of architecture and design at two North East universities. Read more of Michael Johnson's articles on architecture
You may be wondering, what exactly is a crypt? Why were crypts used instead of cemeteries? They have such a foreboding reputation, and in most cases, they may have, however there was reasoning behind this. You and I perceive them as creepy. A room breathing and speaking death. A dungeon in the pits of the abyss we’d rather avoid at night. For those that reside in the crypts, they mean something entirely different.
What is a Crypt?
According to Wikipedia, “In architecture, a crypt (from the Latin crypta and the Greek κρύπτη, kryptē; meaning concealed, private) is a stone chamber or vault beneath the floor of a church usually used as a chapel or burial vault possibly containing sarcophagi, coffins or relics.”
The keyword in this definition is possibly containing, meaning many of the crypts around the world have mummified bodies completely uncovered and in pieces. Hanging on walls. Framing an altar. In some cases, the bones were used for a bannister or staircase. Is this a new form of design? Not exactly.
I believe the bones, and you can tell me if you agree with this, represent the afterlife. They have been left behind, as they served their purpose.
Why Crypts Were Used as Opposed to Cemeteries?
In a practical sense, crypts were used much like cemeteries. To bury the dead. Associations with vampires over the years, however, have cause mixed opinions. This is, of course, because of mainstream media and the Hollywood horror genre in movies and television.
Crypts have been used for centuries for the following reasons:
To combat the issue of cemetery crowding, crypts were used.
To stop looters or vandals from stealing precious artifacts.
To protect the dead from the harsh environment.
To preserve a person of significant importance.
To furnish an altar only accessible to certain people.
To honor the dead.
To evoke fear and the possibility of evil, crypts were used.
Personally, I’m a bit fearful of small spaces. Crypts represent the discomfort people feel in the presence of the dead and in small spaces. This proves to you and me, whether we believe spirits are present in these crypts, our human connection with this idea makes us uncomfortable. It’s this idea keeping people away from the crypts. The spirits. The dead. An atmosphere built on a person’s greatest fear.
Where Can Crypts Be Found?
Crypts can be found all over the world in places like:
Poland
Italy
Germany
France
Switzerland
Portugal
The Netherlands
England
Turkey
North Africa
Romania
Are There Different Types of Crypts?
The answer to the question is yes. There are several types of crypts, those being:
Catacombs- are ancient, human-made subterranean passageways for burial or protection. The word “catacomb” is most commonly associated with the Roman Empire.
Tombs- a storehouse for the remains of the dead. It’s generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes. The word is used in a broad sense to encompass a number of such types of places including: sarcophagi, vaults, rock cut tombs, crypts, monuments, sepulchres.
Ossuary-a chest, building, well, or site made to serve as the final resting place of human skeletal remains. They are frequently used where burial space is scarce. A body is first buried in a temporary grave, then after some years the skeletal remains are removed and placed in an ossuary. The greatly reduced space taken up by an ossuary means it’s possible to store the remains of many more people in a single tomb than if the original coffins were left as is.
Mausoleum-are above ground, free standing buildings, often concrete structures holding family members or one person. A tomb can be found inside a mausoleum.
Four Examples of Crypts Found In Portugal, France, Poland, and Italy
You may be familiar with the Catacombs in Paris, which is a series of tunnels, the remnants of France's stone mines, lined with over six million bodies from around the 12th century from the overcrowding of cemeteries during the rise of Christianity. The Catacombs is a form of ossuary, meaning it holds the skeletal remains of humans.
The Capela Dos Ossos crypt in Evora, Portugal was constructed around the 16th century. The Capela Dos Ossos is a macabre chapel built by Franciscan monks whom believed life could change in a moment, and they urged others to share in this contemplation during prayer. Read this post about the Capela Dos Ossos
The Capuchin Church is a Baroque inspired church built in Bryno in 1604. Capuchin is famed for its crypt, which contained more than 150 friars buried here between 1658 and 1787 during the reign of Emperor Joseph II. Today, there are 24 friars lying on the floor. The friars are fully clothed and their heads rest on bricks. Oddly, their facial expressions remain, as do the religious objects, which have been placed on their chests.
An inscription in the crypt reads:
“What we are, they once were; what they are, we will be.”
The Wola Gułowska , built in 1782, is most famous for its miraculous image of the Virgin Mary, recognised in 1982 by the Archbishop Józef Glemp, and a copy of the image of Madonna. Under the church, a small brick lined crypt was built, which contains a coffin and two skulls. In October 1939, Polish soldiers fought the Nazi invaders in the Wola district of Gułowskiej, culminating in the Battle of Kock near the village. A shrine and Museum was erected in the village after the war to remember the fighting.
Is there a funny side to crypts you may be asking? Well, Dr. Kara Cooney certainly gives her own amusing take on the matter. Dr. Kara Cooney just recently gave a lecture at Tulsa's Philbrook Museum of Art. Cooney is an expert when it comes to all of those ancient Egyptian crypts that fascinate us. Dr. Cooney has appeared on The Craig Ferguson Show and is on The Discovery Channel presently as well. Video By: Jerrys_Menu
Conclusion
Crypts represent many facets of life, as well as death. Over the centuries, they’ve been used to combat overcrowding of cemeteries, as well as repository units for royal families, monks, priests, and other significant persons.
For you and me, they appear to be small spaces encompassing a part of life we’d like to avoid. For those that reside in the crypts, they may represent completion of a life lived well. With honor. Without malice. A place we should respect.
In your opinion, what is the significance of a crypt as opposed to being buried in a cemetery? I believe they invoke a sense of spirit. You?
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The Skull Tower archaeological site dates back to around 1809 during the first revolt in Serbia, and was an Ottoman monument intended to mark the empire's success in defeating the Serbian rebels close to Nis in May 1809.Read This Piece About Skull Tower In Serbia
Perhaps the most interesting part of St Peter and Paul’s church in Mělník is the crypt below the main altar.Accessible from outside through a small but ornate door, the crypt was originally intended to be a final resting place of the Bohemian princesses and queens who resided in Mělník at the time. Read This article on the Melnik Bone Chapel
Due to the amazing response to my first edition of the U-boat history, I decided to follow it up with what happened to the U-boats after World War II.
Near the end of World War II, Germany took a direct approach to hide and even completely destroy its fleet of U-boats before their surrender to the allies. Operation Deadlight was the code name for the destruction of more than 121 U-boats after World War II in abysmal water off Lisahally, Northern Ireland or Loch Ryan, Scotland in late 1945 and early 1946. The remaining 145 U- boats used during World War II were surrendered to the allies.
German U-boat in action 1941
Even after their defeat, the German Bundesmarine still found a way to maintain a navy, even though it was on a smaller scale. They raised two U-boats initially, the Type XXIIIs and a Type XXI, which were repaired. West Germany reentered the submarine market once again in the 1960’s, limited by design criterion including a 450 tonne displacement limit. In an effort to protect against the Soviets in the Baltic Sea, they built smaller submarines enhanced by amagnetic steel to protect against naval mines and magnetic anomaly detectors.
The Type 201 U-boats after World War II, were the first to use amagnetic steel to protect against naval mines. The Type 201 U-boats suffered cracking issues in the hull, sending them into an earlier retirement. The later Type 205 U-boat would use regular steel to combat the issue.
In 1967, 12 Type 205 U-boats were constructed for the German Navy. To maintain their tradition, the first u-boat received the U designation starting with the U-1. The first U-1 was launched in 1906, the boat measuring close to 140 feet long, weighing 238 tons, and could carry 20 men. The new versions were 144 feet long, were 450 long tons surfaced and 500 long tons submerged, and carried 22 men.
The Danish were the first to purchase two Type 205 submarines. When the Type 206 U-boats were assembled, three of them were shipped to the Israeli Navy, thus becoming the Gal class. Germany realized the power they held in the export business, therefore they continued to develop and improve on each u-boat before the last.
“The 209 diesel-electric submarines were the most popular export-sales submarine in the world from the late 1960s into the first years of the 21st century. With a larger 1,000-1,500 tonne displacement, the class was very customizable and has seen service with 14 navies with 51 examples being built as of 2006.”
The Type 212 U-boats christened the 21st century, making their homes in countries such as Italy, with the Type 214 boats sold to Greece, Turkey, and South Korea. The Type 212 submarines were much safer in design, featuring an air-independent propulsion system using hydrogen fuel cells. This system is cheaper than a nuclear reactor and quieter than both. In July 2006, Germany commissioned its newest U-boat, the U-34, a Type 212.
Final Thought
Many u-boats after World War II were used for scrap metal, however some retired to the many u-boat museums around the world.
In 1620, Cornelius Drebbel, a Dutch inventor working for the English Royal Navy, tested the first submarine on the Thames River in England. Between 1620 and 1624 Drebbel successfully built and tested two more submarines, each one bigger than the last.
Van Drebbel followed his first boat with two others. The later models were larger but they relied upon the same principles. It is reported that after repeated tests, King James I of England rode in one of his later models to demonstrate its safety. But even royal favour failed to arouse the interest of the British Navy. It was an age when the possibility of submarine warfare was still far in the future.~Dutch Submarines
During the 18th century, the Turtle was designed by David Bushnell which held one person. It was the first submarine capable of independent movement and the first to use screws for propulsion. During the American Revolutionary War, Turtle (operated by Sgt. Ezra Lee, Continental Army) tried and failed to sink the British warship HMS Eagle, flagship of the blockaders in New York harbor on September 7, 1776.
In 1850, Wilhelm Bauer was asked to design a submarine for the government, incorporating all aspects of the more modern vessels. The Brandtaucher weighed 70,000 pounds, was 28 feet long, and was powered by two sailors turning a tread wheel. Bauer had previously created a model of a larger scale submarine that proved to be functional, however the government refused to accept the design. Tanks of sea water would be filled before submersion, allowing the vessel to stay under the water longer. Since the government chosr to deter from this design, the submarine would be flooded with water, instead of just a few tanks to keep it stable. Brandtaucher sank during a test drive; however Bauer still became instrumental in the development of the English and Russian submarine programs. John Holland later invented electric engines, horizontal rudders, and water ballasts.
On August 4, 1906, the first German U-boat, Unterseeboot-eins, was launched at Danzig. The world’s superpowers had no idea, and honestly, were not concerned with the introduction of the new German submarine. World War I would be the first time the fleet of U-boats would make a lasting impression on the outcome of the war, and change the opinions of the English, Russians, French, and Americans.
Great Britain may have paved the way for industrialism during the first revolution, however after 1870; Germany was swiftly replacing Great Britain as the Industrial leader in Europe.
Since the industrial plant had already been established in Great Britain, it was difficult to transition to new techniques and machinery. The Germans, however, built the latest and most efficient manufacturing plants. Since Britain was notoriously suspicious of any new innovations in industry, they chose not to invest in the latest machinery, thus they suffered economically in that aspect. The German industrialists were accustomed to change, so acquiring more capital from banks for expansion was never a concern. Furthermore, German industry was aided by professionals in science and technology who consistently worked with firms to produce the latest in inventions for efficient and economically productive products.~ The Second Industrial Revolution During the 19th Century
Germany saw a need to protect her small coast, especially after gaining new overseas colonies. Trading ships that transported raw materials and industrial goods needed to be protected on the world seas. At the end of the 19th century, William II of Germany recognized the need to cooperate with industrialists, especially considering Germany’s industry rivaled that of England.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the German Navy, although not as large as England’s, had become a bit dangerous in nature. England became aware of this fact, considering its fleets were always as large, if not larger, that the three largest naval powers in Europe combined. Europe immediately started to increase its navy, however in 1905 Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz started working on defensive and offensive submarines.
German industrialist Gustav Krupp funded the new submarine fleet, built by Spanish engineer Raymond Lorenzo d’Equevilley-Monjustin. Monjustin came to Krupp in 1901 with the grandiose idea for double hulled submarines, capable of long range attacks. Originally, Krupp had inquired about the funding from Tirpitz, however Tirpitz believed the vessels would never accomplish a surface vessel attack. How wrong he would be.
With his own money, Krupp funded the entire plan, thus several features of the submarines were dismissed when funding ran out. The first prototype was introduced on June 8, 1903 and measured 13 meters long and traveled 40 nautical km at a surface speed of 4 knots. Submerged, the vessel traveled at 5.6 knots. The first test in 1904 impressed William II, however Kaiser Tirpitz was still quite hesitant in investing money in a vessel not proven in combat.
Interestingly enough, the first submarine was sold to the Russians in 1904 for the Russo-Japanese War, along with three other vessels of the same design-called the Karp Class. The original design was improved once Krupp's engineers started building them for the Russians. In 1905, Tirpitz finally agreed to purchase submarines for the Germany fleet at the price of 1.5 million marks.
The Launching of the German U-boat U-1
The first U-boat, the U-1, launched in 1906. The boat measured close to 140 feet long, weighed 238 tons, and could carry 20 men. U-1 was armed with a 46 cm bow torpedo tube with three self-propelled torpedoes and an 88 mm deck gun. The U-1 could reach maximum speeds of 10.8 knots on the surface and 8.7 knots while submerged. The cruising range, measuring 2,414 km, made the new U-1 U-boat an important new weapon for Germany.
“Testing of the U-1 resulted in a collision while on a training exercise in 1919. The U-1 was sold to the Germaniawerft foundation at the Deutsches Museum in Munich where it was restored and can be viewed on display.”
World Power Opinions of the U-boat Fleet
German U-boat U-1
Image Via Wikipedia SM U-1
The introduction of the German U-1 was hardly a reason for the largest navies in the world to be alarmed. The Germans had entered the waters a bit too late, especially if they wanted to rival the numbers of vessels in the fleets of the great world powers. At the time, France had 123 submarines, England had 72, Russia had 41, United States had 34, and Germany had 26. This would prove to be a minute issue for the Germans as their fleet continued to grow.
The German U-boat Fleet Commands the Seas
German U-boat U-9
Image Via Wikipedia SM U-9
On September 22, 1914, commander of the U-9 Captain Otto Weddigen, sank three English vessels in less than an hour. England relied heavily on commercial trade, so the sinking of their commercial fleet led to a shortage of essentials that couldn’t reach them. England’s surface waters were now open to German U-boat attacks, and this was an admission the admiralty of England could not ignore.
October 14, 1914, Lietenant Captain Feldkirchner, commander of the U-17, sunk the English steamer, the SS Glitra off the Norwegian coast. In 1907, an agreement at Geneva outlawed surprise attacks on civilian steam ships, however Germany blockaded the British Isles and started sinking commercial vessels. U-17 was decommissioned on 27 January 1919 and sold for scrapping.
German U-boat Attacks RMS Lusitania
The Lusitania, carrying war supplies for the war effort, had already been warned prior to its final voyage. In fact, the German embassy posted a full page advertisement in the New York Times, warning Americans that German U-boats would be in the water and may attack due to the wartime cargo aboard the ship. Against warnings, the Lusitania sailed. On May 7, 1915, the Lusitania was torpedoed by the German U-boat U-20 under the command of KL Walther Schwieger, , killing close to 1200 people, 124 of which were Americans. Rumors serviced that blamed German U-boats for the second explosion, after the Lusitania was already sinking. Further investigations, however, proved that the explosion was due to the ammunition aboard Lusitania.
Public outcry and protest by the Americans forced Germany to stop attacks on civilian ships
Image via Wikipedia RMS Lusitania
The Consequences of the German U-boat Fleet
Fearing the Americans would enter the war, Germany grew desperate. General Erich Ludendorff and Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg set up a blockade, to render England helpless before America could intervene. Three vessels were sunk forcing President Woodrow Wilson to ask Congress to formally declare war on Germany. This concreted Germany’s defeat in the war.
The ending result and consequence of the launching of the first U-1 set the ground for a major conflict between America and Germany, prior to World War II.
Video Of German U-boat 1940
This German propaganda movie was part of a U.S. Navy archive compiled during WWII, and acquired by Periscope Film. In this film, a German U-boat is shown being resupplied at sea by a Type XIV milkcow submarine. Torpedoes and food are transferred, along with diesel fuel. The U-boat then resumes its hunt for English merchant ships during the Battle of the Atlantic.
Note: Video is in German, however the footage is fascinating, even if you can't understand the language.
(1) "With the downfall of Germany, members of her underseas flet rise to the survace and on radio instructions from Berlin, procede to surrender to Allied naval authorities. The U-358 rides into Cape May, N.J., in the custody of a destroyer escort 'prize' crew. At Portsmouth, N.H., destroyer escorts convoy the U-805 into harbor. The Nazi crew is brought ashore still surly and impudent, only to be whisked off to Portsmouth Naval Prison. Back in ruined Bremen, British tommies discover pre-fabricated sections of submarines, parts of an assembly plan which was calculated to add hundreds of new subs to the German navy." scenes of ruins of Bremen sub shipyard, U-boat prisoners arrive in US., in Portsmouth, arogant captain unrepenitent.(2) Germans Surrender Among Ruins - "Berlin: Air Marshal Tedder, General Spaatz, Marshal Zhukoff and others receive the surrender of General Keitel, Admiral Friedberg and General Stumpf, which commits Nazi Germany to Allied control, ceases hostilities and ratifies the previous capitulations to General Eisenhower and General Montgomery. The Wreckage of Germany - R.A.F. saturation bombings of Hamburg have destroyed the huge ship yards and left all buildings absolutely gutted. Hamburg is ruined. And the question 'What of Berlin?' is now answered. All Nazi government buildings are totally ruined, as are the famous hotels and other buildings which lined her famous boulevards." scenes of Keitl surrenders to Zhukov in Berlin, Russians tour the gutted capital, pictures of destroyed Hamburg; (3) German Loot Discovered - "Reichsbank Cache - Yanks entering the world's largest salt mines at Merkers, Germany are startled to find one hundred tons of gold bullion, jewels, silver currency and priceless paintings by the masters, the cached loot of the Nazis." (4) In The Wake Of Victory - "Eminent people, long held in Nazi prison camps are found at a Villa in the Alps. They include Baroness Schussning, Fritz Thyssen, industrialist, Prince Leopold of Prussia, Anti-Nazi Pastor Niemacher, Lt. John Winant and Lord Lascelles, nephew of King George VI. In contrast at Magebarg, General Dietmars, Nazi broadcaster becomes a prisoner of the Yanks." (5) All Out Air War On Japan - "Aircraft factories near Nagasaki are bombed by B-29s from Guam. From Saipan, a fleet of B-29s pierce clouds of flak over Tokyo to plant tons of bombs on the Jap capital city. Homeward, many of the Superforts are forced down at Iwo Jima, where flak damage is seen to be severe." scenes of map and arial footage of airstrikes on Japan, damaged SuperFortress lands on Iwo Jima. (complete newsreel)
Although Kitty Hawk North Carolina would become home to the first manned flight of human kind, the Germans would take these physical parameters into a whole new realm. As the skies offered another battlefield in which to kill and mame, countries that did not embrace this new arena were quickly left behind. During the first world war, the Germans would gain an early edge over most of the Allies as concerned with WWI aircraft. Planes used during World War I became designed around the many German models, which would help the Allies win many later battles of the global war. There are many WWI planes that were important during the war although some played far greater roles than others.
The White Star Line was a British shipping company most famous for its ill fated flag ship the RMS Titanic and World War I sister ship, Britannic.
The White Star Line was originally founded in Liverpool in 1845 by John Pilkington and Henry Wilson. The company's initial focus was on the Australian gold mine trade. In the early 1850's if you had sound ships and ran the Australian route, it would almost be difficult to not succeed. In one month of 1853, no less than 32,000 "get rich quick" hopefuls left port in Liverpool bound or Australia to strike their fortunes in gold. Archived Photography of the White Star Line and Her Ships
She hit an iceberg and sank, in one of the most epic tragedies of all time. Nearly 100 years later tales of the RMS Titanic remains legendary. Perhaps the work of James Cameron and Leo Di Caprio can be credited for bringing the story of this ill-fated trip to mainstream popular culture. Or perhaps, even without a multi-billion dollar blockbuster our morbid human curiosities would still keep us entranced by this sunken piece of history. Diving the Titanic in Newfoundland
In both cases of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, the world war had created high unemployment and dissatisfied veterans. Fascism grew in Italy just as swiftly as Nazism in Germany out of extreme rightist preoccupations with nationalism and, in the case of Germany, racism. One aspect that differed between Fascism and Nazism was the extreme terror put forth by the Nazis against the Jews, however not so much lacking in Fascist Italy. In any case, the condition of the governments at the time made them easy targets for takeover, therefore allowing a new party to emerge that consisted of violent groups, thus ending in superior races that would wreak havoc on society.The Differences and Similarities of Fascism and Nazism
Sources
Pictures under Evolution of the German U-boat Fleet are screen captures from 1940 video of U-boat being refueled and replenished.
Madden, Paul. "Germany Launches Forst U-boat." Great Events. Print.
In the winter of 1853-1854, Swiss archaeologist Ferdinand Keller examined a ghostly cluster of wood posts protruding through the top of the Lake of Zurich. A drought had lowered the water level, exposing the bizarre beams.
Were these posts the supports for lake houses centuries ago? Keller’s assessment fascinated the public, stating the homes belonged to a long lost society, or lake dwellers, of early Europeans.
The idea of prehistoric people living above the water on stilts was just as captivating to scholars as tree people. Once investigations began on western lakes in the region, eyebrows began to raise.
Scholars didn’t believe these so called “huts” were situated where Ferdinand Keller had believed. In fact, the opinion was that no houses were built on the lake on stilts, even though piles of wood were found under the water. There was a clear explanation for this, as water levels had risen since prehistoric times and submerged the homes.
Fiave, Italy Bronze Age Dwellings
An archaeological dig took place from 1974-1975 on a small island in Lake Carera in Faive, Italy. Archaeology digs unearthed several Bronze Age dwellings dating to 2000 BC. They were constructed all over the water and on the sloping shores of Lake Carera. On dry land, the dwellings sat upon piles, the same as they do today to protect against rising waters.
Modern scientific analysis and dating have shown that the settlements were slightly different from what had been supposed earlier. Specialists now prefer to talk about ‘lake people’, who actually built on land (in marshy areas).
At that time, between 4,300 BCE and 800 BCE, the water level in the lakes was much lower and varied from year to year. There were no platforms, only individual houses standing apart from one another. And the hundreds of poles that had led to the platform theory were, in fact, from other periods. The question as to why the lake peoples chose to live in muddy environments remains to be answered. ~EVELINA RIOUKHINA, UNECE
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The Bantu speaking Baganda people created the state of Uganda from a small territory during the late 19th century, under their kabakas, or Buganda kings. The territory had little or no contact with the outside world until the middle of the 19th century, when Arab slavers penetrated the interior.
The Spear Masters of the Dinka Tribe of the upper Nile are a hereditary priesthood, and according to mythology, their presence is reinforced by political and religious ideals. There are several legends of the origins of these spear using masters, one in which includes a lion and a man dancing.
The Cro Magnon people left no written records about themselves, however they replaced the Neanderthals over 30,000 years ago. So what do we know about this prehistoric forerunner to the Homo sapiens? Similar to the Neanderthals, they buried tools, weapons, and ornaments with their dead.
I'm not accustomed to putting politically incorrect text on the Ancient Digger, but this made me very angry, especially considering my personal heritage.
Over the course of one year, I have attended several Jewish Heritage Festivals and I've also done in depth studies on the History of the Holocaust, several times throughout my schooling. I appreciate my family history and I certainly know enough about it to to view this story as a complete fallacy.
One Iranian website has taken it too far, once again calling the Holocaust a complete fabrication. I thought we were past this and I though there was enough evidence to prove that the Holocaust actually happened. Am I naive in thinking this?
The version of the slaughter of six million Jews by their Nazi persecutors during World War II is called "the great lie" by the site, which recounts its version of events in cartoon form.
Displaying images of bearded large-nosed figures, the site aims to denounce the Holocaust as a "lie with which the Palestine occupier Zionists have justified their occupying of Palestine and lots of other crimes for years." In one image, A Jew is tied to a chair on a movie set as a canister of Zyklone-B is dropped through the roof of the gas chamber.
The site is sponsored by the Khakriz Cultural Institute, and is "dedicated to those killed under the pretext of the Holocaust." The imagery is like taking a trip back to Nazi occupied Germany and seeing the hundreds upon thousands of propaganda. It's unsettling and unnecessary!
I refuse to link to the site, as I can not and will not agree with their approach on the matter.
I want to hear from you? What are your opinions about this?
Iran's Ahmadinejad Interview With Peter Jennings on Holocaust
This is an interview between Peter Jennings and Ahmadinejad about whether the Palestines believe the Holocaust actually happened. It's about anger, jealousy, self determination, safety, and women's rights. It's about recognizing an event that meant so much to so many Jews and so little to Palestinians.
The Teatro Olimpico, located in Vicenza, northern Italy, was constructed in 1580-1585 AD. The theater is one of three of the world’s oldest surviving Renaissance theaters and is the world’s oldest indoor theater.The Teatro Olimpico is the last work of renowned architect Andrea Palladio.
In 1570, Palladio published I Quattro Libri dell' Architettura [The Four Books of Architecture]. This literary work cemented Palladio's place in architectural history.
"The book set out Palladio's architectural principles as well as practical advice for builders. The most critical element, perhaps, was the set of meticulous woodcut illustrations drawn from Palladio's own works to illustrate the text. The work was subsequently translated into every European language and remains in print today both in paperback and hardcover".~Boglewood
Palladio is widely considered to be one of the most influential figures in European architecture.
Construction of Teatro Olimpico
Commissioned by the Olympic Academy in 1580, Teatro Olimpico was constructed upon the site of a medieval fortress, used as a prison and powder store.
Palladio planned the design for Teatro Olimpico in 1579, planning a classically inspired structure using sketches and drawings. Unfortunately, Palladio passed in August 1580, only six months after the construction of Teatro Olimpico started. The sketches and drawings Palladio scribed were used by Vincenzo Scamozzi, a Venetian architect that inherited Palladio’s project.
Vincenzo had an excellent starting point with the sketches provided by Palladio, however Palladio never produced designs for the stage floor of Teatro Olimpico. Scamozzi completed this project himself, fashioning a stage made out of wood and stucco. The stage was meant to be temporary, however it survived and remains in the Teatro Olimpico today.
There are also two rooms designed by Vincenzo Scamozzi at the Teatro Olimpico, those being the Odèo and Antiodèo, as well as the original entrance “archway which leads from the street, through an old medieval wall into the courtyard of the old fortress”.
Image via Wikipedia
Scamozzi's stage set at the Teatro Olimpico was the first practical introduction of perspective views into Renaissance theatre. The scenery consists of seven hallways decorated to create the illusion of looking down the streets of a city from classical antiquity. The way in which seats in all parts of the theatre were provided with at least one perspective view can be seen by observing the theatre floor plan and following the sight lines of audience members in different parts of the theatre.
On March 3rd, 1585, Teatro Olimpico was inaugurated with a performance of Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex. Sadly, only a few more performances took place after that, and then the theater was abandoned. A performance of Oedipus the King took place in 1997 at the Teatro Olimpic using the original lighting by Scamozzi.
Source (Bob And Jenny's Bed and breakfast in Italy )
Today, the Teatro Olimpico still hosts musical performances and plays, but on a smaller scale for conservative reasons of course. Classical plays take place in the autumn and the festival II Suono dell’Olimpico in the spring. Every June, Palladio's Teatro Olimpico is used for the graduation ceremony for students from the American Department of Defense high school in Vicenza.
Influence of the Teatro Olimpico
Teatro Olimpico stands to represent one of the most influential architects in the history of European theater, Palladio. Unlike many of its counterparts, the Globe Theater in London, the Teatro Olimpico still stands in its original state. It remains as a significant historic link to the Renaissance stage.
“The Palladian project reconstructed the Roman Theater with an archaeological precision.”
Centro de Studi Architettura Andrea Palladio
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numbering close to 1100. The 
, a Dutch inventor working for the English Royal Navy, tested the first submarine on the Thames River in England. Between 1620 and 1624 Drebbel successfully built and tested two more submarines, each one bigger than the last.
was asked to design a submarine for the government, incorporating all aspects of the more modern vessels. The Brandtaucher weighed 70,000 pounds, was 28 feet long, and was powered by two sailors turning a tread wheel. Bauer had previously created a model of a larger scale submarine that proved to be functional, however the government refused to accept the design. Tanks of sea water would be filled before submersion, allowing the vessel to stay under the water longer. Since the government chosr to deter from this design, the submarine would be flooded with water, instead of just a few tanks to keep it stable. Brandtaucher sank during a test drive; however Bauer still became instrumental in the development of the English and Russian submarine programs. John Holland later invented electric engines, horizontal rudders, and water ballasts.
would make a lasting impression on the outcome of the war, and change the opinions of the English, Russians, French, and Americans.
funded the new submarine fleet, built by Spanish engineer Raymond Lorenzo d’Equevilley-Monjustin. Monjustin came to Krupp in 1901 with the grandiose idea for double hulled submarines, capable of long range attacks. Originally, Krupp had inquired about the funding from Tirpitz, however Tirpitz believed the vessels would never accomplish a surface vessel attack. How wrong he would be.
was still quite hesitant in investing money in a vessel not proven in combat.
North Carolina would become home to the first manned flight of human kind, the Germans would take these physical parameters into a whole new realm. As the skies offered another battlefield in which to kill and mame, countries that did not embrace this new arena were quickly left behind. During the first world war, the Germans would gain an early edge over most of the Allies as concerned with WWI aircraft. 
, northern Italy, was constructed in 1580-1585 AD. The theater is one of three of the world’s oldest surviving Renaissance theaters and is the world’s oldest indoor theater.The Teatro Olimpico is the last work of renowned architect Andrea Palladio.
in 1579, planning a classically inspired structure using sketches and drawings. Unfortunately, Palladio passed in August 1580, only six months after the construction of Teatro Olimpico started. The sketches and drawings Palladio scribed were used by Vincenzo Scamozzi, a Venetian architect that inherited Palladio’s project.
was inaugurated with a performance of Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex. Sadly, only a few more performances took place after that, and then the theater was abandoned. A performance of Oedipus the King took place in 1997 at the Teatro Olimpic using the original lighting by Scamozzi.
and plays, but on a smaller scale for conservative reasons of course. Classical plays take place in the autumn and the festival II Suono dell’Olimpico in the spring. Every June, Palladio's Teatro Olimpico is used for the graduation ceremony for students from the American Department of Defense high school in Vicenza.
